LIGHT SPEED
By Prof. L. Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) February 11 , 2016 After my discovery of the dipole nature of photon presented at the international conference "Frontiers of fundamental physics" (1993) today it is well known that the speed of light c is given by the experimental relation c = (K/k)0.5 discovered by Weber in 1856. Its precise value in vacuum is c = 299792458 m/s (approximately 3.00×108 m/s). Under this condition in trasparent materials such as glass or air, where Ko < K the speed of light is less than c''. Then the ratio between ''c and the speed u'' at which light travels in a material is called the refractive index ''n of the material (n'' = ''c / u''). For example, for visible light the refractive index of glass is typically around 1.5, meaning that light in glass travels at ''c / 1.5 ≈ 200000 km/s; the refractive index of air for visible light is about 1.0003, so the speed of light in air is about 299700 km/s. Under these very important discoveries wich cannot be explained by Einstein's massless quanta of fields (1905), I presented at the international conference of 1993 my new equations for the speed of light. The conference was organized by the natural philosophers M. Barone and F. Selleri, who awarded me an award including a disc of the atomic philosopher Democritus, because in that paper I showed that the invalid hypothesis of self-propagating fields in Maxwell’s theory is modified by my dipolic photons in order to interpret not only the gravitational and the electromagnetic properties of light discovered by Faraday, but also the fact that the speed of light u in trasparent materials is always less than c . In fact, such a rotating dipole (spinning photon) can produce varying Ey and Bz which are the vectors of electric and magnetic interactions acting at a distance.( See my “INTENSITY AND FALSE FIELD”). Whereas the fields of the invalid Maxwell's equations violate Newton's third law of instantaneous action-reaction confirmed by the experiments of the Quantum Entanglement. (EXPERIMENTS REJECTING EINSTEIN). In a simple transparent medium ( radiation in matter ) the electric attraction between the charges of the dipole photon cause in matter some distortion of the atomic electronic cloud. Hence, under a dielectric permittivity the attractive electric force between the charges of the dipole is reduced and the dipole photon moves at a velocity smaller than c. Historically, for understanding why Maxwell’s theory led to complications about the speed of light through materials, we begin with the ideas of Descartes who in his Optics ''(1637) starts by asserting that light is associated with motion in a medium called ether. So definitely he rejects the possibility that “something material passes from the objects to our eyes to make us see colors and light.” However Newton in his theory of rectangular particles of light (having mass), thought that the theory of Descartes could not account for the phenomenon of polarization. Also Newton predicted the gravitational properties of light confirmed by the German mathematician Soldner (1801). In spite of Newton’s criticisms, other seventeenth century scientists like Huygens continued to think of light in terms of impulses in a medium. Ironically it was Newton who suggested that light might have to be somehow assigned also periodic properties in order to account for the phenomena of colors. To decide between the Newtonian rectangular particles of light which led to my discovery of dipole nature of photons and Maxwell's theory of light, a “crucial experiment” is called for: Measure the speed of light in air and in water or glass , to see which is greater. But before this experiment could be done, it was necessary to settle the more fundamental question: Is the speed of light finite or infinite? Galileo discussed this problem in his ''Two New Sciences; he points out that everyday experiences might lead us to conclude that the propagation of light is instantaneous. But these experiences, when analyzed more closely, really show only that light travels much faster than sound. The first definite evidence that light moves at a finite speed was found by Danish astronomer, Ole Romer. In September 1676, Romer announced to the Academic of Sciences in Paris that the eclipse of a satellite of Jupiter, which was expected to occur at 45 seconds after 5:25 A.M. on the 9th November, would be exactly 10 minutes late. Meanwhile in 1845 Faraday discovered the magnetic rotation of the plane of polarized light (Faraday effect). In other words Newton’s rectangular particles have not only mass with gravitational properties but also positive and negative charges like the opposite charges of an electric dipole providing the electromagnetic properties of light. Under this condition Faraday believed that gravitation and electromagnetism were somehow related, but he failed to find any connection, because in 1932 in order to explain his induction law introduced the fallacious concept of field. Faraday imagined that the space surrounding the magnet and the coil was in a state of tension like stretched rubber bands and he called these bands “lines of force”. Although Neumann in 1845 discovered that the induction law is consistent with the magnetic force of the Ampere law, Maxwell in 1865 developed his electromagnetic theory with wrong fields moving through a fallacious ether. Today it is well-known that the ether was rejected by the famous experiment of the two American physicists Michelson and Morley (1887) in favor of Newton’s '''rectangular particles' moving in vacuum. On the other hand in 1902 Kaufmann showed experimentally that the absorption of energy by an electron contributes not only to the increase of the electron energy ΔΕ but also to the increase of the electron mass ΔΜ. Although in 1903 the two American physicists Nichols and Hull showed experimentally that light consists of particles having not only energy E but also momentum p, given by the relation p = E/c, Einstein under his massless quanta of fields based on wrong Maxwell’s waves believed that the increase of mass is due not to the absorption of light but to the relative motion of the electron with respect to a randomly moving observer. Such fallacious ideas of moving fields which led to the invalid relativity could not be explained by the work of Planck (1900), who discovered that E = hν. Also Planck in 1907 in order to interpret the gravitational properties of light (predicted by Newton and confirmed by Soldner in 1801) showed that his quanta of energy E = hν do have mass m = hν /c2 . Under this condition the American physicist Compton (1923) showed experimentally that p = hν/c . Then, since p = mc under the idea of Newton’s rectangular particles of light one could determine the mass m = hν/c2 . Especially Compton discovered that the frequency ν of X rays decreases by collision with electrons. So he showed that light consists of particles possessing both corpuscular and wave properties. It was therefore a confirmation of Newton’s corpuscles having wave properties. In the same way the two American physicists Davisson and Germer showed experimentally that also electrons produce waves. That is, one observes that matter as well as light possesses both wave and corpuscular properties. It is of interest to note that later (1963) the basic postulation (displacement current) for the development of Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory was rejected by the experiment of the two American physicists French and Tessman, who showed that the application of Maxwell’s equation of displacement current involves misconceptions. Particularly during the motion in the ionized air in a capacitor the changing electric field of the discharged plates cannot produce any magnetic resultant. Taking into account all these experiments showing that Newton’s rectangular particles of''' light have not only gravitational properties but also electromagnetic ones, I analyzed carefully the Faraday effect by adding equal positive and negative charges to Newton’s rectangular particles which behave like moving dipoles. In the Cartesian system xy a dipole with two opposite charges +q and -q could move with a velocity u < c along the x direction when the dipole axis r is parallel to y. In this simple case the applications of the Coulomb and Ampere laws give electric attraction Fe stronger that the magnetic repulsion Fm as Fe = Kq2/r2 and Fm = kq2u2/r2 Since Weber in 1856 showed experimentally that K/k = c2 one gets Fe / Fm = c2 / u2. That is Fe > Fm However such a dipole at the speed (u =c ) operates with equal electric attractions and magnetic repulsions. This situation of course leads to the conclusion that the photon of Lewis (1926) interprets the Faraday effect. According to the laws of electromagnetism a magnetic vector in the direction of y can exert a torque to any electric dipole moving along the x direction. Also such dipoles moving at c interact with an electron of charge (-e) in terms of varying vectors Ey and Bz because of the spin of the dipole (dipolic photon). Such a situation also led to my discovery of PHOTON-MATTER INTERACTION as Ey(-e) dy = dw and Bz(-e) dy = Fmdt = dp = dmc. Since the experiment of Weber leads to Ey/Bz = c one gets dw/dm = c2 That is the absorption of a photon by an electron is given by hν/m = ΔΕ/ΔΜ = c2 Furthermore I showed that in the induction law the motion of a magnet with respect to a coil gives always a magnetic force, while the fallacious electric field of Maxwell violates the principle of relativity. In other words, Einstein’s basic assumption of his special relativity that a moving magnet with respect to a coil produces electric field violates the principle of relativity. To conclude I emphasize that laws and experiments invalidate fields and relativity . Thus a clear answer to the photon-wave dilemma is given by the dipole photon which reveals the dipole nature of photon. Note that a low frequency photon exposed to a magnetic field was split into a separate positive charge and a separate negative charge. (See in Google "The photon consists of a positive and a negative charge" ). These charges were exposed to an electric field which changes its position. This position was measured using a charge meter described by Hans W Giertz (2010). Under such experiments one concludes that the velocity of light in vacuum, (c''' ) is constant because K/k = c2 or By/Bz = c. Moreover the speed at which light propagates through transparent materials, such as water or air the velocity of light depends on the polarization of molecules during the motion of dipole photons. Nevertheless under the influence of Einstein’s relativity today many physicists believe that the speed of light is a physical constant under the ideas of the invalid special relativity. For example in the “Speed of light-WIKIPEDIA” one reads the foloowing false ideas: “According to special relativity, c'' is the maximum speed at which all matter and information in the universe can travel. It is the speed at which all massless particles and changes of the associated fields (including electromagnetic radiation such as light and gravitational waves) travel in vacuum. Such particles and waves travel at ''c regardless of the motion of the source or the inertial reference frame of the observer. In the theory of relativity, c'' interrelates space and time, and also appears in the famous equation of mass–energy equivalence ''E = ''mc''2.” Category:Fundamental physics concepts